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Paths of Asceticism

Inspired by Nietzsche's Genealogy of Morals, third essay (click for a hypertext reading of this work)

Asceticism is the systematic discipline of body, mind or spirit. It takes many forms. The most commonly described are physical disciplines and self-denial. It is also directed toward achieving some important and valued goal. We previously defined religion in terms of the values and goals. Religion in action is ascetic inasmuch as it is organized, disciplined and oriented toward a goal or toward following a traditional "Way." All asceticism is not considered to be religious, though Nietzsche's "third essay" of the Genealogy of Morals argues that it is essentially and practically identical to religion. This extremely broad notion of asceticism complements the broad definition of religion made in my introductory essay on religion.

The word ascetic is derived from the same root as the word athletic. As a long time student of religions, I have noticed that an analysis of asceticism can tell us a lot about a religion and the culture within which it arises. It can provide us a very powerful and interesting means of comparing cultures and religions, drawing to the foreground various prejudices, likes and dislikes. Modern, secular society is based heavily on an asceticism of a very different nature than we see among monks. Yet, it still involves values (usually humanistic) and goals (economic, social and political improvement and growth). It's central myth is the belief that myths have been abolished and replaced by scientific truth.

All cultures seem to develop a variety of modes of athletic or ascetic development. Warfare and hunting, each with obvious athletic/ascetic demands, are fundamental disciplines for human life. In modern society, this "primal instinct" for war and the hunt takes the form of video games that conveniently provide satisfaction for both urges in the most popular games. The asceticism of calisthenics is necessary for organized warfare and team sports. Dance and drumming are common ascetic disciplines in nearly all tribal cultures. The attraction to rhythm and movement is deep and complex. Our bodies and the world are full of pulses, cycles and rhythms, which in essence mark the passage of time.

It would appear that only Asia was deeply interested in the human body and a sort of spiritual or non-corporeal anatomy whose purpose it is to circulate some form of energy or "astral breath." Their practices involve visualizing energy flowing through channels within the body. Few would argue the claim that the Chinese developed the most elaborate system, and institutionalized it in their medical system. Western medicine and biology depended heavily upon dissection and cutting. Chinese medicine appears to have evolved out of thousands of years of empirical study and tradition.

Western medicine is now discovering the benefits of these Chinese sciences. For example, the needles of acupuncture stimulate the movement of energy or chi through these channels. Some insurance covers certain acupuncture treatments. There are even acupuncture veterinarians. The Chinese also have a very sophisticated technology of herbal medicine that is achieving wider acceptance in the West now than it probably has in China now. Many non-Chinese are studying these sciences now. What is most interesting about this system is that although the patient can receive treatments, the main line of defense is the proactive practice of extensive, slow, fluid movements synchronized with breathing done by each individual--a form of calisthenics, but with emphasis on breathing and visualizations. Health becomes a two-sided affair involving intense participation on the part of the patient.

Yoga is very similar to these Chinese sciences, but strongly prefers stationary practices involving stretching, motionlessness and concentration in contorted postures. Yoga places a great deal more importance on a variety of fantastic occurrences that accompany the discipline: mystic experiences, sweating, bodily tremors, insensitivity to pain, even levitation.

There are more modes of asceticism that are important to understanding most of the world's major religions. The most obvious is what I call the path of abnegation or self-denial: the life of the hermit, the life of the beggar, the life of monastic labor. There are several related or similar paths--the devoted life of ritual piety (making ritual observances, acting so as to minimize bad karma, obeying tradition or religious law) and the life of the scholar. In primal cultures this takes the form of oral tradition, and the memorization of stories. In literate cultures, this involves intensive study of scriptures and other religious texts. Lastly, the controversial paths of the "asceticism" of hedonism (sexuality, intoxicants) and magic or sorcery also involve disciplines and physical practices. It is significant that these latter paths tend to be strongly suppressed within modern society and within monotheistic religions.

All cultures have disciplines and paths related to these various forms of asceticism/athleticism. As these cultures develop, these paths of ascetic discipline may lose their religious connotations, and thereby become secular traditions, hobbies and sports. However, it is clear that all of these paths can, do and have been deeply connected with religion at some point in time. Even hunting and warfare can have deep religious connotations. Paleolithic cultures connected the asceticism of dance, sorcery, ritual observance and hunting that they portrayed for us in their cave paintings.

Modes of Asceticism

There are a variety of ascetic disciplines that in many cases are connected to religion, or at least inseparable from it. Each culture has a preference for some over others, and a tendency to view some as religious and others as secular. Every culture is a complex conglomerate of these ascetic paths. In the list below I have organized them in order of their fundamentality/universality. As you move down the list, many of the monotheistic religions and secularist/scientific “religions” find these forms of asceticism to be ridiculous/superstitious,unhealthy or evil. The first types of asceticism in this list may appear to the same modern eye to be something other than a manifestation of religion. I am sorting these categories out somewhat arbitrarily. Notice that actual manifestations of human behavior may simultaneously be examples of several of these modes.

	hunting/fishing (aerobic and strength training, and weapon training.) Popular even in cultures where meat can be obtained and consumed while driving an automobile.
	warfare and calisthenics -- Essential training for boys from an early age. Often involves horse and chariot training. Team sports is perhaps a dramatization of organized warfare--with armies of soldiers. Football was literally a religious act in ancient Mexico and Central America. Think of the number of ascetic hours modern humans spend practicing video games. An interesting narrative of progress, no?
	Work/Money complex capitalism invented this asceticism of labor --> money model that is so deeply assumed in modern society. Capitalism is a more sophisticated means of generating surplus. This is the asceticism of business, finance, investment. Money as an invention turned out to be a ticket off the farm and out of the hunting parties in the late Middle Ages. In tribal societies, we find ascetic work in the form of arts and crafts and architecture. We also see exchanges of goods and symbols. Is money the same? Monasticism might be understood as a form of public works--a means of survival for those who did not wish to farm or hunt? Monks depend upon support of the lay people to feed them, and the financial support of the church to house and educate them.

The following activities require the development of more sophisticated societies, economies and language. They are essential and common in some form or another in all societies where there is enough time to sit back and relax at all. Surplus is essential for them exist.

	rhythm, music, dance is quite restrained and formal in European history. Drums and dancing were always considered to be vulgar and unsuited for spiritual purposes. Dance was and is quite wild and ecstatic in Africa, erotic in Southwest Asia and India, and dramatic in East Asia. European culture seems to be unique in its development of musical harmony and counterpoint. Also, European music avoided drums in formal settings until Beethoven's time. Drums were considered to be a rural and vulgar instrument like the gypsy guitar. It was said that dance is an extension of the mating behaviors of animals. Gospel music brought this rhythmic element into Protestant Christianity, and then into mainstream religions around the world.
	family & social life all societies have complex rules and expectations about how each person fits into society as a whole, and within the family unit or tribe. This is not usually considered a form of asceticism, but anyone who has raised children can tell you that it is definitely an exercise in asceticism. It is very difficult to find religions anywhere on the planet which do not view this as a profoundly important aspect of religion. The lack of a traditional religious dimension in modern secular society offends religious traditionalists particularly in this domain.
	ritual piety-- gaining favor, status, clearing past karma through the things you do: avoiding certain foods, making sacrifices, reciting prayers, telling certain stories, singing hymns, helping the poor, not harming animals, decorating the house for celebrations, communing with dead ancestors, not working on certain days, shooting fireworks. Although the religious motivation is often lost, these rituals seem to continue in many societies, so long as they please the people.
	knowledge & scholarship Study of nature (science), study of written texts, schools, universities, which generally included oratory training along with whatever discipline. Religion was almost always the target of the scholarship until later in the development of a society. The High School diploma. The ordination of priesthood, PhD degree. Many religions have placed a great deal of emphasis on this path, though there is often controversy over what constitutes a valid object of study--for instance, science (as understood by modern society) was considered blasphemous until the Seventeenth Century. Theology is fairly rare today, or at least it is rarely taken seriously as an employable field of study.
	aesthetics--learning flower arranging, pottery, sushi preparation, fashion, etc. Not pragmatic, aesthetic discipline is not appreciated by "Philistines" or those for whom time is money. (Why take the time to cook when you have a microwave oven or McDonalds? Why should my tax dollars fund the NEA?) Asian societies place a strong emphasis on aesthetic discipline. It can be difficult for a Westerner to understand how this can be religious or spiritual. Perhaps aesthetic asceticism belongs in the next cluster.

The previous five paths or modes are obviously essential and common in some form or another in all societies where there is enough time to sit back and relax at all. It is also clear that these are the areas that suffer most when times are tough. The last set of ascetic modes below contains the most controversial ones. Societies develop very strict rules about these, and may determine that some are counterproductive, ridiculous/superstitious, unhealthy or evil.

	abnegation & sacrifice--hermits and mendicants (religious beggars). This seems to be more popular in India and the rest of Asia than in other cultures. We also find it in the Judeo-Christian traditions, but it is strongly frowned upon in modern society--even in India it is losing some of its acceptance among the urban and educated. I guess that the primary form of self-denial we see in modern capitalism is the deferred gratification of retirement and saving money. Many feminists point out that abnegation is a role into which women are acculturated in modern society. Dieting is another form of self-denial asceticism in modern society. Georges Bataille's notion of the "accursed share" suggests interesting implications for the notion of sacrifice. Sacrifice is a form of abnegation. This asceticism of denial and sacrifice is closely connected with, and probably blurred with the next...
	hedonism--the use of intoxication, pleasure and even pain for religious purposes. This is perhaps the most confusingly diverse among cultures. Christian monks whipped themselves and wore scratchy hair shirts. Indian Faquirs pierced themselves, lied down on beds of nails. Probably South Asia (India and surroundings) has developed the most elaborate systems of sexual spirituality. The use of alcohol is common in many religions, but the more austere Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and Confucianism do not believe that drunkenness and holiness are compatible. Many tribal cultures have important connections to intoxicating substances within their religions. Tantra, which probably has more connection to tribal practices than mainstream Hinduism or Buddhism where it is found, uses forms of hedonism as spiritual practice. Temple prostitution was common in the pre-Christian West, even in Aztec culture. Most religions have at least some very subtle form of hedonism, but it may be obscured. The ecstatic trances of Pentecostals are clearly hedonistic experiences, and are often criticized by outsiders as frivolous.
	subtle body work & visualization (energy movement, dream "work," meditation (concentration), asanas/martial arts, alternative medicine) considered by many to be superstitious, and by a few to be metaphysically evil. What characterizes this is its internal nature--there is no necessity of external spirits.
	sorcery and shamanism study of spirits, demons, magic, metaphysical healing by means of spirits, communicating with dead ancestors, etc. What characterizes this is its external nature--connection and dependence upon spirits for the operations. In literate societies, this path involves the use of standardized prayers, incantations, magical words of power, etc. In oral societies, it is the work of a shaman who enters a state of trance. It is interesting to note that much of what Protestants criticize in Catholic religious practice involves a perception or assumption that Catholics are appealing to spirits and saints instead of talking directly to God. Santería is a more polytheistic-henotheistic form of Christianity with an emphasis on the sorcery aspect.

I hope you can see that the distinctions between the categories are not so clear when we look at actual manifestations within cultures because of the fact that a particular activity might involve several ascetic paths together. But, where all of this analysis of asceticism gets interesting is when we compare the ways in which various societies approach these potential disciplines or forms of asceticism. It is evident to me that the way in which the most physical disciplines are treated is connected with profound spiritual, social, psychological, philosophical and ethical predilections we see in these cultures.

The Jesuits of Catholicism combined many of these in their militant, scholarly, monastic, hard-working lives. Judaism places a vast amount of emphasis on ritual piety and scholarship. Christians placed enormous emphasis on scholarship, monastic life and ritual observance. (streamlined by Protestantism, who also emphasized work.) Perhaps most significant is the strong distaste that monotheistic religions have for hedonism, body work and sorcery. Instead of meditation, we find prayer, which generally avoids many of the metaphysical aspects of body work and visualization.

Chinese religion conveniently combines military calisthenics with the subtle body work mentioned above with a strong emphasis on ritual piety and aesthetics (which developed into a sophisticated asceticism in the East unseen in Europe). Scholarship is also clearly important in the training of children.

It should be clear now how these categories of asceticism can be applied to the interpretation and analysis of World Religions.

click here for the shortened version of this page used as a handout in class.